Persuasive Communication Theory

Persuasive Communication Theory in Social Psychology: A Historical Perspective Icek Ajzen University of Massachusetts – Amherst From M. J. Manfredo (Ed) (1992). Influencing Human Behavior: Theory and Applications in Recreation and Tourism (pp 1– 27). Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 1 Few subjects in social psychology have attracted as much interest and attention as persuasive communication. One of the first topics to be systematically investigated, persuasion has been the focus of intense research efforts throughout much of social psychology's brief scientific history.Untold experiments have been conducted to unravel the intricate web of factors that appear to play a role in determining the effectiveness of a persuasive message. These attempts have revealed a degree of complexity that seems to defy explanation and that poses serious obstacles to theory construction. However, recent years have seen considerable progress at the the oretical level and a resurgence of empirical work has done much to invigorate the field and provide a better understanding of the fundamental psychological processes underlying persuasion.To appreciate the significance of these developments we must compare the emerging ideas and research findings with those from earlier efforts. The present chapter is designed to provide the required historical perspective. Since it aims to review developments in our understanding of the persuasion process, emphasis is placed on ideas and theories rather than on methodological or practical concerns; empirical research findings are summarized only in broad outline when needed to make a point of theoretical significance.The solution of problems created by recreation and tourism often involves persuasion in one form or another. As the chapters in the second part of this book illustrate, recreationists must be persuaded to observe rules of safety, to avoid conflicts with other visitors, and to keep thei r impact on the environment to a minimum. Although social psychologists have rarely tested their ideas in the context of recreation and tourism, the findings and conclusions discussed below have obvious implications for any attempt to influence beliefs, attitudes, and behavior in this domain.THE NATURE OF PERSUASION Persuasive communication involves the use of verbal messages to influence attitudes and behavior. Although the context of persuasion must necessarily be considered, the verbal message, designed to sway the hearts and minds of the receivers, is at the core of persuasive communication. Through a process of reasoning, the message exerts its influence by force of the arguments it contains. As we shall see below, this emphasis on reasoning sets persuasive communication apart from other social influence strategies.Structure of a Message As a general rule, a message consists of three parts: An advocated position, a set of general arguments in support of the advocated position, and specific factual evidence designed to bolster the general arguments (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). The advocated position may be a stand on a particular issue (e. g. , support for a tax increase) or a recommended action (e. g. , donating blood). The general arguments will typically supply reasons for adopting the advocated position, and justification for the arguments is provided in the form of factual evidence.Consider the question of instituting a senior comprehensive examination for undergraduate college students. Petty and Cacioppo (1986, pp. 54-59) published some examples of general arguments and supportive evidence they have used in their research program. Among the major arguments contained in Petty and Cacioppo's messages were the claims that instituting a comprehensive exam raises students' grade point averages and leads to improvement in the quality of undergraduate teaching. The factual evidence in support of the first argument was formulated as follows (pp. 4-55): The N ational Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a five-year study conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University. The results of the study showed that since the comprehensive exam has been introduced at Duke, the grade point average of undergraduates has increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exams, grades increased by only 8% over the same period. The prospect of a comprehensive exam clearly seems to be effective in challenging students to work harder and faculty to teach more effectively.It is likely that the benefits observed at Duke University could also Persuasive Communication Theory Page 2 be observed at other universities that adopt the exam policy. If accepted as valid, the factual evidence should result in acceptance of the argument that instituting a senior comprehensive exam will raise grade point averages, and acceptance of the argument in turn should increase the likelihood that receivers will endorse the po sition in favor of instituting a comprehensive exam, as advocated in the message.There is, of course, no assurance that receivers of a message will in fact accept the arguments and evidence it contains. On the contrary, identifying the factors and conditions that produce acceptance of information contained in a message is the major purpose of persuasion theory and research. Alternative Influence Strategies In order to develop a better understanding of the nature of persuasion, it is instructive to contrast persuasion with a few alternative influence strategies. The review offered here is far from exhaustive but it will help highlight some critical aspects of persuasive communication.Coercive Persuasion People can be induced to behave in a prescribed way by offering a sizable reward for compliance or by threatening severe punishment for noncompliance. This strategy of change can be very effective in producing the desired behavior, but its effectiveness is contingent on supervision (F rench and Raven, 1959) and has few lasting effects on beliefs or attitudes. Enduring attitude change by means of coercion is more likely in the context of total institutions, such as prisons, mental hospitals, or prisoner-of-war camps.Situations of this kind enable control over many aspects of an individual's life for an extended period of time. Even here, however, enduring attitude change is difficult to obtain and often fades after release from the institution (see Schein, 1961). Hypnosis and Subliminal Perception Instead of trying to overcome resistance to change by force of coercion, one can attempt to circumvent conscious opposition by means of hypnosis or presentation of subliminal messages. Posthypnotic induction can be used to instruct individuals upon awakening to engage in specified behaviors or to hold new attitudes (e. . , Rosenberg, 1956). There is, however, some question as to whether hypnosis actually represents an altered state of consciousness that can be used to ci rcumvent people's usual resistance to manipulation of their beliefs and actions (cf. Barber, 1965; Wagstaff, 1981). Use of subliminal perception to bring about change is similarly problematic. Its effectiveness depends on the presentation of information at an intensity level too low for conscious perception, yet high enough for it to enter unconscious or subconscious awareness.Clearly, such a fine balance demands careful calibration and, given individual differences in perceptual acuity, may not be achievable in a mass communication context. In any event, even when subliminal perception can be demonstrated, its effects on attitudes and behavior tend to be of rather small magnitude (cf. Erdelyi, 1974). Conditioning and Affect Transfer Another way of trying to avoid resistance to change involves the use of conditioning procedures. It has been argued that attitudes can be changed by means of classical conditioning (e. . , Staats and Staats, 1958) and that behavior can be influenced thr ough the systematic use of reinforcements in an instrumental conditional paradigm (e. g. , Krasner, 1958). Since the advantage of conditioning in comparison to direct persuasion rests on the assumed ability of conditioning to operate without awareness of the influence attempt, the extent to which individuals submitted to conditioning form hypotheses about systematic associations created in the conditioning paradigm is of crucial importance.Contrary to earlier claims, it now appears that there is no convincing evidence that adult human beings can be conditioned without awareness (cf. Brewer, 1974). An idea related to classical conditioning has emerged in the recent marketing literature where it has been proposed (Batra and Ray, 1986; Mitchell and Olson, 1981) that positive or negative affect elicited by one stimulus (the advertising) can transfer automatically to an associated stimulus (the advertised brand). This Persuasive Communication Theory Page 3 ffect transfer, however, is ass umed to occur only when individuals have no other, more informed basis, for evaluating the brand in question (Shimp, 1981). Moreover, given the results of research on conditioning in human beings, it can be assumed that affect transfer, if it occurs at all, occurs only in the presence of awareness of the contingencies involved. Subterfuge obvious heuristic in a persuasion context has to do with the communicator's credibility. The position advocated in a message may be accepted if the message comes from a highly credible source but rejected if the source is perceived to lack credibility.When using this rule of thumb, receivers accept or reject the advocated position or action without considering the merits of the arguments contained in the message. Conclusions Whereas the strategies discussed thus far all in one way or another try to prevent or neutralize awareness of, and thus resistance to, the influence attempt, the strategies considered here subtly manipulate the situation in ord er to promote a psychological state that leads people voluntarily to engage in the desired behavior.The foot-in-the-door technique (Freedman and Fraser, 1966) and other sales ploys are good examples of this approach. When using the footin-the-door technique, a small request SQ acceded to by most individuals SQ is followed by a much larger request. Due presumably to the commitment produced by agreeing to the small request, conformity with the large request tends to increase. An alternative strategy involves first confronting a person with an unreasonably large request and then appearing to compromise by offering compliance with a smaller request.In a highly readable book, Cialdini (1988) describes a number of ways in which subterfuge of this kind can be employed to elicit behaviors that might otherwise not be performed. Subterfuge strategies take advantage of people's various needs to reciprocate any favor received, to be liked by others, to be consistent, and so forth. Compliance is secured without the benefit of discussing the merits or costs of the requested action. Heuristics We have noted that change by means of persuasive communication is based on a careful deliberation of the pros and cons associated with an advocated position or ction. We shall see in subsequent sections, however, that receivers of a message sometimes make judgments about the advocated position without going through an elaborate reasoning process. Instead, they may rely on heuristics or rules of thumb to arrive at a conclusion (cf. Chaiken, 1980, 1987). The most Our discussion shows that social influence can operate in a variety of ways and that various strategies are available to take advantage of the different possibilities. Nevertheless, persuasive communication occupies a unique position in the matrix of social influence.Of all the available strategies it is the only one that appeals to reason, attempting to bring about change and compliance by convincing the individual of the valid ity or legitimacy of the advocated position. This tactic can be much more difficult than, say, coercion, but it also has important advantages. Besides being more compatible with democratic and humanistic values, persuasive communication can produce profound and lasting change, a goal not easily attained by other means. THE PERSUASION CONTEXT No message appears in a vacuum.At a minimum, we can usually identify the source of a message: an editor of a newspaper editorial, a lawyer pleading a client's case before a jury, or a movie star asking for donations to a charity. The communicator's identity, however, is only one of the many factors that constitute the context of persuasive communication. Classical analysis (Lasswell, 1948) has divided communication into several distinct aspects that can be summarized as who says what, how, and to whom. More formally these aspects are known as source, message, channel, and receiver factors; together, they constitute the context of 1 persuasion.So urce Factors Source factors are observed or inferred characteristics of the communicator. They include biological attributes such as age, race, height, and sex; behavioral features such as Persuasive Communication Theory Page 4 facial expressions, mannerisms, hand and body movements, and the way the communicator is dressed; social properties such as income, power, and social status; and personality traits such as self-confidence and extraversion. The most frequently studied source factors, however, are the communicator's credibility and attractiveness.Credibility refers to the perceived expertise and trustworthiness of the communicator. In other words, does the communicator have the knowledge to provide an informed opinion on the issue in question and, if so, can he or she be trusted to present all relevant information in an unbiased fashion? As noted earlier, persuasion is generally assumed to increase with credibility. It has similarly been proposed that the amount of change is in fluenced by the attractiveness or likability of the source, whether attractiveness is defined in terms of physical features or psychological and behavioral characteristics.Receiver Factors On the opposite end of the communication context, parallel to source factors, are characteristics of the receiver or audience to whom the message is addressed. These characteristics include the receivers' personality traits, sex, social status, intelligence, involvement, and so forth. Any attribute of the audience, or combination of attributes, may provide a context that contributes to the effectiveness of the message. Channel Factors The context of the message is also defined by the means used to communicate it.Information can be communicated face-to-face, in writing, or by way of an audio tape or video tape. Note that although it is possible to hold the content of the message (the general arguments and factual evidence) constant across channels, different modes of communication will often vary i n terms of some of the context factors. For instance, the audience obtains more information about physical and behavioral characteristics of the source from face-to-face or video messages than when the information is presented in written or oral form.Thus, it may be difficult in some instances to determine whether differences in persuasion are due to variations in the communication channel or to associated contextual differences that may confound the observed effect. Message Factors Potential confounding of a more serious kind can occur in the case of message factors because variations message features are often accompanied by differences in content. Message factors concern the ways in which information is communicated to the audience.Among the factors that have been considered are the order in which arguments are presented, one- versus twosided presentations, and emotional versus nonemotional appeals (e. g. , humorous messages or messages that arouse fear versus neutral messages). To see why variations in message characteristics are often confounded with differences in message content, consider the case of one- versus two-sided communications. Clearly, to present both sides of an issue, an effective message must contain information and arguments not contained in a message that supports only the advocated position.In a twosided message, the communicator mentions arguments that could be used to support the opposite side and then proceeds to refute those arguments. In addition, of course, the communicator also discusses the arguments in favor of the position advocated in the message. Only this part is the same as or similar to the one-sided message. In the case of emotional versus neutral appeals, problems of confounding occur because humorous or fear-arousing communications generally contain information and arguments specifically designed to generate these emotions.It is thus difficult to separate the effects of fear or humor from the effects due to differences in the information contained in humorous versus nonhumorous messages or in high- versus lowfear messages. Situational Factors The persuasion context contains several situational variables that do not fit easily into the traditional framework of source, message, channel, and receiver factors. Among these situational variables are distraction and forewarning. Distraction can be the result of environmental noise, or it can be internal as when a person is preoccupied with other concerns.Forewarning refers to the availability Persuasive Communication Theory Page 5 of information before exposure to the message, which warns the receiver either that an influence attempt is imminent or that the communicator is planning to advocate a certain position. In either case, forewarning may prepare receivers to rally their defenses against the forthcoming message. The Hovland Tradition Scientific work on persuasive communication began in earnest during World War II in an attempt to determine the eff ects of war-time propaganda (Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, 1949).This was followed by a period of intensive experimental research at Yale University in the 1950s under the direction of Carl Hovland (Hovland, Janis, and Kelley, 1953; Sherif and Hovland, 1961). Although it was extremely prolific and highly influential, the program of research initiated by the Hovland group produced very few generalizable conclusions. By the late 1960s, disappointment with this approach had become widespread (see Eagly and Himmelfarb, 1974; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). In this section we review the major lines of work in the Hovland tradition and consider some of the reasons for its failure.Theoretical Orientation The empirical work of the Hovland group was guided by a loose theoretical analysis based on learning principles, and by a conceptual framework that incorporated context variables (source, message, channel, and receiver factors), target variables (immediate attitude change, retention, behav ior change), and mediating processes (attention, comprehension, and acceptance) (see McGuire, 1969, 1985). Very briefly, the theoretical analysis assumed that attitude change involves learning a new response to a given stimulus (the attitude object).Exposure to a persuasive message suggests the new response (the advocated position) and provides an opportunity to practice the response. The various contextual factors were assumed to facilitate learning by reinforcing and firmly embedding the new response in the receiver's response hierarchy. Empirical Research The conceptual framework of context, target, and mediating variables served to organize thinking about the persuasion process. However, much of the empirical research in the Hovland tradition dealt primarily with the impact of contextual factors.Thus, in the 1950s and 1960s, hundreds of studies were conducted to examine the effects of source credibility and attractiveness; receiver intelligence, self-esteem, and involvement; fea r appeals and order of presentation; distraction and forewarning; and a multitude of other contextual variables (see McGuire, 1985 for a recent review). Little attention was devoted to the dependent variable that serves as the target of the communication, although persistence of change over time was an early concern (see Cook and Flay, 1978). Of the mediating variables, only attention and comprehension were directly assessed.Thus, many studies contained a recall or recognition test to measure the degree to which the message was â€Å"received† (McGuire, 1968), that is, the degree to which the message was attended to and comprehended. Generally speaking, the purpose of the test was to make sure that reception did not vary across conditions of the experiment, and that whatever effects were observed could not be attributed to differences in reception. In other words, the goal was usually to rid the experiment of the mediating effect of reception, rather than to study reception i n its own right.Note also that the conceptual framework had little to say about the content of persuasive communication and what its role in the persuasion process might be. Message content was treated largely as a given, while the questions addressed had to do with the effects of contextual factors on the amount of change produced by the message in question. We shall see below that this approach to the study of persuasive communication was one of the major reasons for the failure of the Hovland tradition. Effects of source factors.One of the first lines of research initiated by the Hovland group dealt with the effects of communicator credibility (Hovland and Weiss, 1951), and innumerable studies since have manipulated this variable. Of all the contextual factors studied in the Hovland tradition, variations in source credibility have produced the most consistent findings. By and large, communicators high in expertise and trustworthiness tend to be more persuasive than communicators with low standing on these factors. However, even here, somePersuasive Communication Theory Page 6 contradictory evidence has been reported. Source credibility does not always increase the amount of change, and in some situations it can even have a negative effect (cf. McGuire, 1985, p. 263). Other source characteristics are generally found to have no simple or easily predictable effects on persuasion. The communicator's attractiveness, education, intelligence, social status, and so on can serve as cues for inferring expertise and can thus affect persuasion.However, these indirect effects do not appear to be strong enough to produce consistent results across different investigations. Effects of receiver factors. Age, gender, intelligence, self-esteem and other individual differences among receivers are rarely found to have strong effects on persuasion, and the results of different investigations are often inconsistent. Moreover, receiver factors are found to interact in complex ways with each other and with additional factors such as the complexity of the message, the type of arguments used, the credibility of the communicator, and so on.Effects of channel factors. A rather discouraging picture also emerged with respect to the effects of the medium of communication. While visual messages tend to be better liked and attended to than spoken or written messages, recall is sometimes better for written material, and adding pictures to print can be distracting (see McGuire, 1985, p. 283). In light of these contradictory effects, it is hardly surprising that empirical research on channel factors has produced largely inconsistent results.Effects of message factors. Some of the most complex patterns of findings are associated with message factors such as emotional versus nonemotional appeals, message style, and ordering of message content. With respect to the latter, consider for example whether one should state the message's basic position at the outset or at the end. Stating it at the beginning may have the advantage of clarity, making the source appear more trustworthy, and of attracting the attention of receivers sympathetic to the advocated position.It can also have the disadvantage, however, of lowering interest and antagonizing receivers initially opposed to the advocated position (McGuire, 1985). Other message factors can have equally complicated effects. To illustrate, consider the degree to which the message arouses fear or concern. Contrary to expectations, initial research (Janis and Feshbach, 1953) showed a low-fear message to be more effective than a high-fear message in producing compliance with recommended dental practices.Later research, however, has often found the opposite effect, and many investigations have reported no differences between high- and low-fear messages (for reviews, see Boster and Mongeau, 1985 and Higbee, 1969). Similarly inconsistent findings have emerged with respect to the effects of humor in persuasive comm unication (see Markiewicz, 1974). Retrospective In light of largely inconsistent research findings concerning the effects of contextual variables, many investigators became discouraged with the Hovland approach.Thus, after editing a book on attitude change in 1974, Himmelfarb and Eagly reached the following pessimistic conclusions: After several decades of research, there are few simple and direct empirical generalizations that can be made concerning how to change attitudes. In fact, one of the most salient features of recent research is the great number of studies demonstrating that the empirical generalizations of earlier research are not general, but contingent on conditions not originally apparent. (Himmelfarb and Eagly, 1974, p. 94. ) In fact, the complexity of the persuasion process noted by Himmelfarb and Eagly in their reference to contingencies has been a favorite explanation for the failure of the Hovland approach. This explanation holds that persuasion is influenced by so many different factors interacting with each other that only complicated, multidimensional research strategies can cope with the complexities. However, when investigators have studied higher-order interactions, no clear or replicable patterns have emerged.Indeed, there is serious doubt that the search for complicated interactions can ever be a viable strategy (cf. Cronbach, 1975; Nisbett, 1977). The role of the receiver. Besides failing to advance our understanding of the persuasion process, the complexity explanation had the Persuasive Communication Theory Page 7 unfortunate effect of hiding the basic shortcomings of the Hovland tradition and thus delaying the search for alternatives. As is usually the case, realizing where this approach went wrong is much easier in retrospect than it was at the time.Perhaps without meaning to, the Hovland group cast the receiver in a rather passive role whose task was to â€Å"learn† the information and recommended position presented in a message. Attention and comprehension would assure that the information was absorbed, and persuasion would thus follow automatically. This view of the receiver stands in clear contradiction to much that is known about information processing. People are far from passive receivers of information.Instead, they usually act on the information that is available, integrating it (Anderson, 1971), constructing interpretations of their own (Neisser, 1976), and going in many ways beyond the information given (Bruner, 1957). This is just as true in the domain of attitudes as it is in other areas of information processing. For example, research on impression formation has shown that people draw far-ranging inferences about the attributes of another person on the basis of very limited information (Asch, 1946; Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Wiggins, 1973).Such inferences are often said to rely on â€Å"implicit theories of personality† (Schneider, 1973) which might suggest, among other things, th at if a person is said to be hostile, he is also likely to be rash, aggressive, and inconsiderate. Several other lines of research demonstrate more directly the potential importance of inference processes in persuasive communication. Thus it has been shown that a persuasive communication designed to produce a change in one belief will also lead to changes in other, related, beliefs (McGuire, 1960a; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970).It is even possible to produce change by merely making people aware of inconsistencies among their beliefs or values (McGuire, 1960b; Rokeach, 1971) in a process McGuire has termed the â€Å"Socratic† effect: After reviewing their beliefs, people tend to change some of them in the direction of increased logical consistency. In short, there is every reason to expect that receivers exposed to a persuasive communication may engage in an active process of deliberation that involves reviewing the information presented, accepting some rguments, rejecting others, and drawing inferences about issues addressed that go beyond what was mentioned in the original message. The image of the passive learner fostered in the Hovland tradition is thus highly misleading, and misses the most important aspect of persuasive communication: the receiver's capacity for reasoning and for being swayed by the merits of a well-presented argument. Persuasion by the Peripheral Route The passive-learner view of the receiver implicit in the Hovland approach quite naturally led to a focus on the persuasion context.If the communicator's task is to make sure that receivers learn and absorb the contents of the message, concern turns to a search for conditions that facilitate attention to the message and comprehension of its arguments, with a concomitant lessening of interest in what the receiver does with the information that is received. Ironically, recent theory and research have established the potential importance of contextual factors, at least under certain wellspec ified conditions. Once we realize what these conditions are, we can begin to understand the reasons for the inconsistent findings of research conducted within the Hovland paradigm.In the previous section we emphasized the active role of the receiver who may engage in an elaborate process of reasoning about the merits of the arguments presented in the message. This view assumes, first, that receivers are in fact sufficiently motivated to exert the required cognitive effort and, second, that they have the ability to carefully process the incoming information. It now appears that contextual factors influence persuasion only when one or both of these conditions are not met (Chaiken, 1980; Petty and Cacioppo, 1981, 1986).Motivation to process the message and elaborate on it is largely a matter of the receiver's involvement. Different aspects of the self may be activated in a given situation, depending largely on the issue addressed, and as a result, different kinds of involvement can be generated. Specifically, the message may create involvement by dealing with receivers' enduring values, with receivers' ability to obtain desirable outcomes or avoid undesirable outcomes, or with the impression receivers make on others Persuasive Communication Theory Page 8 (Johnson and Eagly, 1989).However, when the message has few implications for enduring values, for important outcomes, or for selfpresentation, it produces little motivation to carefully deliberate its contents. Ability to process a message is related to factors internal to the receiver as well as to external factors. Among the internal factors are familiarity with the issues and cognitive ability and intelligence, factors that tend to increase capacity for information processing; and preoccupation with other matters and lack of time, which tend to reduce the ability to elaborate.External factors that increase the ability to process include message repetition and clarity of presentation, while external distraction and use of complicated language can reduce processing ability. Some of the contextual factors studied by the Hovland group can come into play when internal or external factors lower the receiver's ability to process the information presented in the message. Empirical Research When ability and motivation to process the message are low, receivers can use peripheral cues (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986) or cognitive heuristics (Chaiken, 1980) to form their opinions.Chaiken assumed that receivers of a message, even if they are not very greatly involved, nevertheless are motivated to hold a â€Å"correct† view on the issue. Since, under conditions of low motivation and ability, receivers are either incapable or unwilling to deal with the merits of the advocated position, they look for contextual or peripheral cues that might provide a basis for forming an opinion. Perhaps the most powerful such cue is the communicator's credibility, and it may be argued that this is the reason for the relatively consistent findings associated with communicator credibility.The heuristic strategy might in this case involve the following line of reasoning: â€Å"If this expert on the matter says so, it must be right. † This heuristic appears quite reasonable in that it accepts the position advocated by a credible source, even if one has not carefully scrutinized the arguments presented. Receivers can also use the source's attractiveness, or factors related to the message such as the number of arguments it contains, as peripheral cues. Thus, a message coming from a iked source might be viewed as more trustworthy, and one that contains many arguments (even if specious) might be seen as more reliable than a message that contains few arguments. Note, however, that these rules of thumb are far less convincing as a rational basis for accepting or rejecting an advocated position, and it is perhaps for this reason that factors of this kind often fail to have strong or consistent effe cts on persuasion. In any event, relying on heuristics obviates the need for careful message processing, and at the same time provides a basis for adoption of a position on the issue.Recent empirical research tends to support this view of the peripheral route to persuasion, although some complications have recently been noted (Johnson and Eagly, in press). Since excellent reviews are available elsewhere (Chaiken, 1987; Petty and Cacioppo, 1986), we limit our discussion here to an example concerning the effects of source characteristics. Recall that communicator attractiveness was one of the source characteristics studied in the Hovland paradigm that did not have a clear and consistent effect on persuasion.If treated as a peripheral cue used only when processing motivation or ability is low, more consistent findings tend to emerge. Attractiveness of the source has been varied by attributing the message to famous versus unknown individuals (Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann, 1983) or to a likable versus an unlikable person (Chaiken, 1980). The investigators also manipulated the degree of involvement and found, as expected, that communicator attractiveness has a significantly greater effect on persuasion under low than under high involvement.Conclusions Work on the peripheral route to persuasion suggests that the source, message, channel, and receiver factors studied in the Hovland tradition can indeed influence the effectiveness of a message, but that this is likely to be the case only under conditions of low motivation or low ability to process the message. Such conditions can be obtained in the psychological laboratory that ensures some degree of attention by a captive audience even if the receivers have little interest in the topic or lack the ability to process the information presented (Hovland, 1959).In more naturalistic field settings, receivers who Persuasive Communication Theory Page 9 lack the motivation or ability to process a message can usually leave th e situation, while those who remain and are exposed to the message will tend to be sufficiently involved and able to process the information it contains. Persuasion by the peripheral route is clearly an inappropriate model for many realistic situations, and it is often inapplicable even in the artificial context of the laboratory.REASONING AND PERSUASION Even when it works, there is something distinctly unsatisfactory in the demonstration of change via the peripheral route, because the change brought about does not represent persuasion as we usually think of it. We noted at the beginning that it is the process of reasoning, the evaluation of the merits of arguments in favor and opposed to the advocated position, that is at the heart of persuasive communication. Persuasion involves more than simply oing along with an expressed point of view because of the presence of some peripheral cue; it requires that the advocated position be accepted only after careful scrutiny of the message an d after application of whatever other information the receiver can bring to bear. Moreover, change produced by the peripheral route is generally of little practical significance. Petty and Cacioppo (1986) noted that peripheral attitude change tends to be shortlived, tends to be susceptible to counterpropaganda (McGuire, 1964), and tends to have little effect on actual behavior.Clearly then, from both a theoretical and a practical point of view it would be to our advantage to focus less on the context of persuasion and more on the central processes that occur when a person is exposed to a message. Persuasion by the Central Route In the remainder of this chapter we examine persuasion that occurs when the receiver of a message is sufficiently able and motivated to give at least some scrutiny to the contents of the communication and to evaluate the merits of the arguments it contains.This has been termed the central route to persuasion (Petty and Cacioppo, 1981) and the deliberations re ceivers perform are known as systematic information processing (Chaiken, 1980). Instead of asking what makes a given message more effective, we must now ask how to construct an effective message. That is, what arguments, when systematically processed via the central route, will have the greatest impact on the receiver's attitudes and behavior? Before we can review what is known about this question, however, we must consider the role of the receiver in greater detail. The Elaboration Likelihood Model.The peripheral route to persuasion discussed earlier is one of two tracks a receiver can take in Petty and Cacioppo's (1981, 1986) elaboration likelihood model (ELM). The second track is persuasion via the central route. According to the ELM, central route persuasion depends on and is determined by the degree to which receivers elaborate on the information presented in the message. Briefly, during exposure to a persuasive communication, receivers are assumed to generate arguments of thei r own, either in support of the advocated position (pro arguments) or opposed to it (con arguments).These cognitive responses determine the direction and degree of change in attitudes and behavior. Increased motivation and ability to process the information in the message is, according to the model, associated with an increase in the number of cognitive responses (pro and con arguments) generated. To the extent that the number of arguments generated on the pro side exceeds the number of arguments on the con side, the receiver will change in the advocated direction. When elaboration leads to the production of more con than pro arguments, however, either no change or a â€Å"boomerang effect† (change in the opposite direction) may occur.From the communicator's point of view, therefore, motivation and ability to elaborate on message content is a two-edged sword. If, on balance, the thoughts generated by the receiver favor the advocated position, then the central route to persuas ion works to the communicator's advantage. On the other hand, if the receiver's cognitive responses consist predominantly of counterarguments, then elaboration on message content can be quite detrimental to the communicator's purpose.A number of studies, summarized in Petty and Cacioppo (1986), have examined the role of cognitive responses in the persuasion process. In these studies, cognitive responses are elicited Persuasive Communication Theory Page 10 in a free-response format following exposure to the message. The thoughts listed by the receivers are coded as either in favor or opposed to the advocated position, and the number of responses of each type is determined. Results, by and large, support the idea that the production of cognitive responses increases with motivation and ability to elaborate.Moreover, it is also found that changes in attitudes and behavior are consistent with the pattern of cognitive responses that are generated: a balance of thoughts in favor of the adv ocated position tends to be associated with change in the desired direction. 2 Yielding and Impact. Consideration of cognitive responses generated by receivers in the course of exposure to the message is, however, not sufficient to account for observed changes in attitudes and behavior. For change to occur in the central mode, some of the receiver's fundamental beliefs and values must undergo modification.Elaboration on the message may in fact lead to changes in cognitive structure, but evidence for the production of pro- or counter-arguments does not, in itself, assure that such changes have indeed taken place. Work on the elaboration likelihood model has focused primarily on cognitive responses to the message and has not dealt directly with changes in cognitive structure. The ideas discussed below are based on other recent work concerning persuasive communication via the central route (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975, 1981).According to Fishbein and Ajzen, a message can bring about chang es in a receiver's cognitive structure in one of two ways. First, in a process termed yielding, acceptance of arguments presented in the message can produce changes in corresponding beliefs held by the receiver. Consider, for example, a pregnant smoker who initially is not aware that cigarette smoking can adversely affect the health of her unborn baby. This woman is now exposed to a message containing an argument and supportive evidence that establish the link between smoking and adverse health effects on the fetus.To the extent that the argument is accepted, it produces yielding in the sense that the woman's cognitive structure now contains a new belief that corresponds directly to the argument in question. That is, she now believes, as stated in the message, that smoking may have ill effects on her unborn baby. Changes in a receiver's primary beliefs, however, can extend far beyond the information directly contained in the message. Such changes that go beyond the information given are termed impact effects.To illustrate, the pregnant woman exposed to the message that smoking can have detrimental health effects on her fetus may infer that she would feel guilty if she did not stop smoking and that her doctor would want her to quit, even though neither argument was explicit in the message. It is also possible, however, for her to draw inferences that would work against the aims of the communicator. For example, the woman may unexpectedly form the belief that quitting would be even worse than continued smoking because it would result in overeating.These impact effects can, of course, play a major role in the woman's decision to quit or not to quit smoking. Evidence for the importance of considering yielding as well as impact effects can be found in a study on drinking reported in Ajzen and Fishbein (1980, pp. 218-242). Persuasive Argumentation The challenge facing a communicator trying to produce change via the central route is to create a message that will orig inate favorable responses, produce yielding to its arguments, and generate impact effects in accordance with the advocated change.Arguments contained in a message can be considered effective to the extent that they influence the receiver's cognitive structure. The essential question, therefore, is what makes an argument effective. In light of the fact that rhetoricians have written about argumentation for over 2,000 years, it is surprising how little empirical knowledge is available about the relative effectiveness of different types of arguments (McGuire, 1985). An analysis of this problem reveals at least three important aspects of an argument's effectiveness: novelty, strength, and relevance.Below we discuss each of these aspects in turn. Argument Novelty Persuasive Communication Theory Page 11 An argument contained in a message may well be accepted (i. e. , believed to be true), but if the receiver already held the belief in question before exposure to the message, no change in belief structure would result (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1981). To be effective therefore, an argument contained in a message must not be part of the receiver's initial belief system. Some empirical evidence for this proposition can be found in research on group decision making (Vinokur and Burnstein, 1974).In the course of group discussions, members who offer novel arguments in support of a given decision alternative are found to be more influential than members who raise points that are well known to the rest of the group. Argument Strength Besides being novel, an argument must also be strong if it is to sway the receiver to adopt the advocated position. A strong argument is one that tends to produce agreement (positive thoughts) and does not encourage generation of many counterarguments (Petty and Cacioppo, 1986). Although it is not clear what makes a strong argument, its strength or weakness can be empirically established.Earlier in this chapter we gave an illustrative example of a pe rsuasive argument taken from Petty and Cacioppo's (1986) research program. The argument asserted that instituting a senior comprehensive examination would raise grade point averages (see p. xx). This argument and the associated evidence make a strong case for the advocated position. Compare this to the following argument, also designed to generate support for a comprehensive exam. The National Scholarship Achievement Board recently revealed the results of a study they conducted on the effectiveness of comprehensive exams at Duke University.One major finding was that student anxiety had increased by 31%. At comparable schools without the exam, anxiety increased by only 8%. The Board reasoned that anxiety over the exams, or fear of failure, would motivate students to study more in their courses while they were taking them. It is likely that this increase in anxiety observed at Duke University would also be observed and be of benefit at other universities that adopt the exam policy (Pe tty and Cacioppo, 1986, p. 57). Although this argument is quite similar in structure to the strong argument presented earlier, it appears to present a much weaker case.In fact, this argument is typically found to generate many counterarguments. Clearly, in order to create an effective message, it is in the communicator's interest to select strong arguments and avoid including arguments that tend to elicit negative thoughts about the advocated position. Argument Relevance Related to the question of an argument's strength is its relevance to the advocated position. An argument may be strong in the sense that it generates few counterarguments and many pro arguments, but if it addresses an issue that is not directly relevant to the advocated position, it may fail to produce the desired effect.This point is often not sufficiently appreciated. Suppose a communicator would like to convince students to attend an anti-apartheid demonstration in Washington, D. C. , and thus exposes the studen ts to a persuasive message against apartheid in South Africa. Although the arguments contained in the message may be strong in the sense that they are believable and generate few counterarguments, the message may not be very effective as a means of inducing students to go to Washington.To make the message more relevant in terms of this goal, one would have to include strong arguments that deal more directly with the advantages of attending the planned demonstration. A relevant argument, then, is one that changes those primary beliefs of the receiver that are directly related to the target of the influence attempt, that is, to the attitude or behavior the communicator wishes to affect. Different target variables are based on different primary beliefs, and an effective message must be tailored to fit the target in question.General discussions of different target variables and their respective foundations of primary beliefs can be found in Fishbein and Ajzen (1975, 1981) and in Fishbei n and Manfredo (Chapter xx, this volume). It is beyond the scope of this chapter to provide an in-depth review. Briefly, Fishbein and Ajzen distinguish Persuasive Communication Theory Page 12 among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and behaviors as possible targets of a persuasive communication. To effect a change in any one of these target variables, the message arguments must be directed at the primary beliefs that provide the basis for the target in question.The first step in the construction of a message, therefore, requires a decision about the relevant primary beliefs, a process that cannot be left to intuition but must be guided by a model of the target's determinants. Social psychologists have discussed a variety of approaches to understanding beliefs and attitudes and their relations to behavior, but perhaps the most popular models can be found within the framework of the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980) and its recent extension, the theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1988).The discussion below considers each target variable in turn; however, a full understanding of the process is gained only by considering the relations among the different variables. Changing behavior. According to the theory of reasoned action, many behaviors of interest to social psychologists are under volitional control and, hence, are in an immediate sense determined by the intention to perform the behavior in question. A successful persuasive communication designed to change a certain behavior must therefore contain arguments that will bring about a change in the antecedent intention. The theory of planned behavior oes beyond the question of intended action, taking into account the possibility that the behavior of interest may not be completely under volitional control. To be successful, the message may have to provide information that will enable the receiver to gain volitional control and overcome potential obstacles to perfor mance of the behavior. A review of evidence in support of these propositions can be found in Ajzen (1988). Changing intentions. The antecedents of behavioral intentions are, according to the theory of reasoned action, the person's attitude toward the behavior and his or her subjective norm.The attitude toward the behavior refers to the evaluation of the behavior as desirable or undesirable, and the subjective norm is the perceived social pressure to perform or not to perform the behavior in question. The theory of planned behavior again adds to this model a consideration of volitional control. When issues of control arise, intentions are influenced not only by attitudes and subjective norms but also by perceived behavioral control (Ajzen and Madden, 1986; Schifter and Ajzen, 1985).A persuasive communication designed to influence intentions (and thus also behavior) can be directed at one or more of the intention's three determinants: attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavio ral control. Changing attitudes. We arrive at the level of primary beliefs as we consider the determinants of a person's attitudes. According to the theory of reasoned action, attitudes are a function of salient beliefs about the attitude object (a person, group, institution, behavior or other event). Each salient belief links the object to an attribute or to an outcome in the case of a behavior.The attitude is determined by the strength of these beliefs and by the evaluations associated with the attributes (Fishbein, 1963; Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980). Beliefs about the attitude object that are salient prior to presentation of the message can be elicited in a free-response format. The message is then constructed such that it will either change some of the existing beliefs, either in their strength or their evaluations, or introduce new beliefs into the belief system. Changing beliefs. To change a specific belief on an issue, the persuasive communication has to address some of the info rmation on which the belief is based.Several probabilistic models that link prior information to a given belief have been proposed and validated (McGuire, 1960b; Wyer and Goldberg, 1970; for a review see Slovic, Fischhoff, and Lichtenstein, 1977). These models suggest that the information introduced by the persuasive communication must be information from which the belief in question can be probabilistically inferred. Conclusions The focus in recent years on the central route to persuasion holds great promise for a better understanding of persuasive communication.This route deals with the essence of the persuasion process, with changes in the fundamental beliefs on which the receivers' attitudes and actions are based. Although much remains to be done, social psychologists have gained considerable insight into some of the cognitive processes that are at work during and Persuasive Communication Theory Page 13 after exposure to a persuasive communication, and into the practical aspects of constructing an effective message. SUMMARY This chapter provided a brief historical perspective on persuasive communication theory in social psychology.No attempt was made to discuss all theoretical developments in detail as this task would require a book in itself. Instead, the focus was on a few dominant lines of theoretical development, from the beginnings of scientific research on persuasion in the 1940s to the present day. The work initiated by Hovland and his associates tended to view the receivers of a persuasive communication as passively learning the information presented and then changing their beliefs and attitudes accordingly. This view led to a concern with contextual factors, and virtual neglect of the contents of the communication and its processing by the receiver.Few generalizable conclusions emerged from the research guided by this approach, and by the late 1960s the failure of the Hovland approach was widely acknowledged. Progress was recorded when attention t urned from contextual or peripheral factors to persuasion via the central route. Contextual factors were found to be important only under conditions of low involvement or low ability to process the message. It was discovered, however, as a general rule, that receivers of a message are far from passive, engaging in an active process of analyzing and elaborating on the information presented.It became clear that the effects of a persuasive communication could not be understood unless careful attention was given to these cognitive processes. Theoretical and empirical developments of the past two decades have enabled us to consider receivers' cognitive responses during exposure to a message, yielding to the arguments contained in the message, and the message's impact on other beliefs not explicitly mentioned. These developments have also resulted in a much closer examination of the contents of persuasive communications, with an eye toward selecting arguments that will have the maximum ef fect on the target of the influence attempt.In this way, the theoretical developments of recent years have important implications for the practitioner who is concerned with constructing effective persuasive communications. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 14 REFERENCES Ajzen, I. 1985. From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior. In: J. Kuhl & J. Beckmann, eds. Action-control: From cognition to behavior. Heidelberg: Springer: 11-39. Ajzen, I. 1988. Attitudes, personality, and behavior. Chicago: Dorsey Press. Ajzen, I. , & Fishbein, M. 1980. Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior. Englewood-Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Ajzen, I. & Madden, T. J. 1986. Prediction of goal-directed behavior: Attitudes, intentions, and perceived behavioral control. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 22: 453-474. Anderson, N. H. 1971. Integration theory and attitude change. Psychological Review, 78: 171-206. Asch, S. E. 1946. Forming impressions of personality. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 41: 258-290. Barber, T. X. 1965. Physiological effects of ‘hypnotic suggestions': a critical review of recent research. Psychological Bulletin, 4: 201-222. Batra, R. , & Ray, M. L. 1986. Affective responses mediating acceptance of advertising.Journal of Consumer Research, 13: 234-249. Boster, F. J. , & Mongeau, P. 1985. Feararousing persuasive messages. In: R. N. Bostrom, ed. Communication Yearbook, Vol. 8. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage: 330-375. Brewer, W. F. 1974. There is no convincing evidence for operant or classical conditioning in adult humans. In: W. B. Weimer & D. S. Palermo, eds. Cognition and the symbolic processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum: 1-42. Bruner, J. S. 1957. On going beyond the information given. In: H. E. Gruber, K. R. Hammond, & R. Jessor, eds. Contemporary approaches to cognition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press: 41-69. Chaiken, S. 980. Heuristic versus systematic information processing and the use of source versus mes sage cues in persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39: 752-766. Chaiken, S. 1987. The heuristic model of persuasion. In: M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson, & C. P. Herman, eds. Social Influence: The Ontario Symposium, Vol. 5. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum: 3-39. Cialdini, R. B. 1988. Influence: Science and practice, 2nd Ed. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman. Cook, T. D. , & Flay, B. R. 1978. The persistence of experimentally induced attitude change. In: L. Berkowitz, ed. Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 1. New York: Academic Press: 1-57. Cronbach, L. J. 1975. Beyond the two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist, 30: 116-127. Eagly, A. H. , & Himmelfarb, S. 1974. Current trends in attitude theory and research. In: S. Himmelfarb & E. H. Eagly, eds. Readings in attitude change. New York: Wiley: 594610. Erdelyi, M. H. 1974. A new look at the new look: perceptual defense and vigilance. Psychological Review, 81: 1-25. Fishbein, M. 1963. An investigati on of the relationships between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward that object. Human Relations, 16: 233-240. Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. 1975. Belief, attitude, intention, and behavior: An introduction to theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. Fishbein, M. , & Ajzen, I. 1981. Acceptance, yielding, and impact: Cognitive processes in persuasion. In: R. E. Petty, T. M. Ostrom, & T. C. Brock, eds. Cognitive responses in persuasion. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum: 339-359. French, J. R. P. , & Raven, B. H. 1959. The bases of social power. In: D. Cartwright Ed. , Studies in social power. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press: 118-149. Freedman, J. L. , & Fraser, S. C. 1966. Compliance without pressure: The foot-inthe-door technique.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 4: 195-203. Higbee, K. L. 1969. Fifteen years of fear arousal: Research on threat appeals: 19531968. Psychological Bulletin, 72: 426-444. Himmelfarb, S. , & Eagly, A. H. , eds. 1974. Readings in atti tude change. New York: Wiley. Hovland, C. I. 1959. Reconciling conflicting results derived from experimental and survey studies of attitude change. American Psychologist, 14: 8-17. Hovland, C. I. , Janis, I. L. , & Kelley, H. H. Persuasive Communication Theory Page 15 1953. Communication and persuasion. New Haven: Yale University Press. Hovland, C. I. , Lumsdaine, A. A. & Sheffield, F. D. 1949. Experiments on mass communication. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. Hovland, C. I. , & Weiss, W. 1951. The influence of source credibility on communication effectiveness. Public Opinion Quarterly, 15: 635-650. Janis, I. L. , & Feshbach, S. 1953. Effects of fear-arousing communications. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48: 7892. Johnson, B. T. , & Eagly, A. H. 1989. The effect of involvement on persuasion: A metaanalysis. Psychological Bulletin, 106: 290314. Krasner, L. 1958. Studies of the conditioning of verbal behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 55: 148-170. Lasswell, H. D . 948. The structure and function of communication in society. In: L. Bryson Ed. , Communication of ideas. New York: Harper. Markiewicz, D. 1974. Effects of humor on persuasion. Sociometry, 37: 407-422. McGuire, W. J. 1960a. Cognitive consistency and attitude change. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 60: 345-353. McGuire, W. J. 1960b. A syllogistic analysis of cognitive relationships. In: C. I. Hovland & M. J. Rosenberg, eds. Attitude organization and change. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press: 65-111. McGuire, W. J. 1964. Inducing resistance to persuasion: Some contemporary approaches. In: L. Berkowitz, ed.Advances in experimental social psychology, Vol. 1. 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Canvas Art

Demonstration Speech Outline Specific purpose statement: To inform my audience about the 5 steps of melted crayon art. Introduction: Attention Getter; Do you ever get bored, and you are a creative person who loves crayons? Well if you are, you can create a piece of art on a canvas. Credentials: I’ve done plenty of canvas arts and they are easy and fun to make. Tie to audience: Crayon canvas art, can be done pretty much by anyone. They are simple to make and can give you a piece of art to hang on your wall that you created. Thesis Statement: There are 5 steps in melting crayons on a canvas.The First step is Gathering your supplies, Second step glue crayons onto the top of your canvas in the order you want, Third step place your canvas against a wall or hold it up, Forth step take your hair-dryer or lighter and apply to canvas, and the Fifth step is once you're satisfied with your canvas, let the wax dry. Body: I. The First step, is Gathering all the supplies. a. Crayons b. Glue c. Canvas d. Hair-dryer or Lighter II. The second step, glue your crayons onto the top of the canvas in the order you want. a. Make sure to place your crayons where you want them. b.Make sure your crayons are glued. c. Make sure your crayons are dried. III. The Third step, place your canvas against a wall or held up so the wax drips down. a. Make sure the glue is dry. b. Make sure the canvas is at a tilt or slant. c. Be sure it is sturdy. IV. The Forth step, take your hair-dryer or lighter, turn it to their highest setting, and blow-dry or melt the crayons. a. Apply any design cutout (Optional). b. Apply the hair-dryer or lighter to the canvas. c. Melt the crayons in the way you want until satisfied. V. The Fifth step is once you're satisfied with your canvas, let the wax dry. . When finished, let it set for a few minutes. b. When your art work is done you can display it on a wall, or give it to someone as a gift. Conclusion: Today I have shown you how to create a piece of art on a canvas using crayons. To do this properly the steps must be done in proper order. Fist gather all of the supplies, second glue the crayons on top of the canvas where you want them, third place your canvas on a wall or help up, forth apply the hair-dryer or lighter to blow-dry or melt the crayons, and fifth once you’re satisfied let the canvas set for a few minutes to dry.

Orwell and Swift

One of the techniques they have common is that both of them are using satire. After comparing Orwell and Swift essay, I believe that Swift uses satire more effectively than Orwell does. At first, Swift uses his title more effectively than Orwell. Second Swifts statements which Is eating Infants for saving Ireland has more Impact than Rowel's statement. Thirdly, Swift essay drips with sarcasm by using many metaphors. First of all, the title of Swifts essay immediately demonstrates irony.The essay title â€Å"A Modest Proposal† is very ironic as he describes his own essay as ‘modest', though his opinion includes strong message for government of Ireland. Using irony in his title makes his proposal stronger and more sarcastically. From this title, at first the redder thinks his proposal might be a general proposal as usual politicians. However, after finished reading his essay, we realize that his theories of the essay is very grotesque and shocking even though he describes his observations about the nation reasonably.His statement has many twist, so it gives us big impression. For example, he states that â€Å"l shall now therefore humbly propose my own thought† (3) After this sentence, he begins to write about eating baby which Is difficult to Imagine from his tattle ‘Modest'. On the other hand, Orwell doesn't use Irony In his title. The reader easily guesses that he will talk about Politic and English from his title â€Å"Politics and the English Language†. Second, Swifts statement which is eating infants has more impact than Rowel's statements.For instant, Swift says that â€Å"l have no children by which I an propose to get a single penny; the youngest being nine years old, and my wife past child-bearing†(7). It makes the whole sentence becomes more sarcastically . Because His theory is shocking to most readers as most people can relate to having children or knowing someone who has offspring. However, from his final sent ence, we can understand that he is not emotionally involved to this theory or solution. This sentence implies that â€Å"I'm not emotionally Involves to my theory, so let's eat children and save Ireland.Swift uses irony as much as possible until the very end of his essay. In contrast, Orwell use of Irony Is less obvious than Swifts essay. In his theory, he suggests not to use metaphor, sleep, or other techniques which we are used to seeing in print. However, he makes use of metaphors and similes in his own essay. He even admits that fact in his essay. For instant, Orwell states that â€Å"l have again and again committed the very faults I am protesting against† (8). From this sentence we can realize that he even admits to using technique which he courage's to use and it emphasizes the irony in the article.However, this ironic statement doesn't have enough impact to reader, and it is hard to understand what is the core message he is trying to say from this sentence. Thirdly, Swift essay drips with sarcasm by using many metaphors. He describes a baby as food or pig and also describes wives as foal companions. For example, he says that â€Å"young healthy child well nursed Is at a year old a most delouses, nourishing, and wholesome food, whether stewed, roasted, baked, or bold;† (3) It makes us easier to Imagine what he Is liking about and gives us more Impact than sentence without metaphor. Sing metaphor to describe his theory makes his theory more sarcasm. In contrast, Orwell doesn't use many metaphors In Nils essay. So, It Is Doolittle Imagine Tanat want nee Is trying to say until the end of his essay. His theory is too detached tone. In conclusion, after compared Orwell and Swift essay, I believe that Swift essay has more impact and uses satire more powerfully than Orwell does. At first, Swifts title has more influence than Rowel's one. Secondly, Swifts statement which is eating baby gives us bigger impression than Rowel's statement.

International Trade Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

International Trade - Essay Example Up course it not new phenomena, instead similar strategies have been pursued by countries from the past few years (1). Countries were taking steps to reduce trade barriers such as tariffs to encourage trade, and opening their markets to the world and gain maximum advantage of it. If we go through the modern history, we can see that there was a shift in world trading system among bilateralism, regionalism and multilateralism. In the late 19th and the early 20th century, there was a dominance of bilateral trading system as the trade agreements were negotiated on a bilateral basis between individual countries. Such activities were initiated by England in the 1860s and 1870s as it pushed its trading partners to sign trade agreements. But, after Second World War, trade at multilateral and regional level was gained importance in place of bilateral system. During the period 1940-1990, multilateral trade system gets importance as more and more nations joined the GATT or its successor, the WT O. But, in contrast post 1990 period once again witnessed the dominance of bilateralism which is dubbed as the failure of WTO negotiations at the 1999 Seattle ministerial conference. In addition, regional trade agreements were also gets importance during the period (2). ... ountervailing duties, taxes, environmental, health and safety certification requirements, duties, anti dumping measures, laws, quotas, customs, and licensees are the main hurdles in the way of international trade. Generally, these trade barriers were necessary for countries to protect domestic producers from foreign competition. But, in modern years, international organisations such as WTO were introduced several measures for improving free trade, and as a result the role played by tariffs in international trade has been declined. World Trade Organisation, which came in place of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) generally, deals with regulation of trade between the participating countries. Countries are using barriers in these days to evade free trade rules framed by international trade agreements such as WTO, North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), or European Union (EU) as they restrict the use of tariffs. Moreover, usage of these barriers in international trade ha s been raised sharply after the WTO rules led to a very significant reduction in tariff use. Sometimes countries voluntarily restrict imports of goods from outside as a safe guarding measure in limiting the competition that domestic industries have to face from the imported goods. Some times it is a retaliation technique for countries in case they think that a trading partner has not played by the rules. Many a time’s governments intervened in international trade to safe guard their national security. Generally, almost all countries arranged their defence system from military attack and they cannot leave it to the private sector as the national security is a public issue. So, this is a major issue for any country, and taken into account whenever it starts trade with other trade barriers

Buissness speech interviewing speech Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Buissness speech interviewing speech - Essay Example My management background would me make fit to this job since I am trained to oversee all aspects of operations . A business is a system where everything is related , therefore my post graduate degree in Management has equipped with me with the needed skills, knowledge and attitude for this job. There was a time when the materials we needed would be delayed that it would cost so much for us and the companies we deal with. I had to find ways and means to transport our orders the soonest time possible but that meant extra 10% cost to be charged to the company. decided to take the risk of outsourcing the delivery from another trader who can deliver on time. I believe that was a great risk but it was very effective since the customer was happy and satisfied with our service. The effect is that the client remained loyal to the company. The upper management lauded me for the effort since the cost was nothing compared to the customer satisfaction . As a manager, w e are continually faced with problem situations and it is important that we have the maturity to make sound decisions at the right time. I am a married man with three children and I need to support my family through a good career. Also, I value integrity, hard work and commitment as a person. When I promise that I can deliver the results, I make sure that I perform well. Even to my family, I keep my promise on my personal commitments. If work gets in the way of fulfilling such promise, then I reschedule a time for them which fulfills the obligation. In business, I have the same attitude. There are many competitors out there willing to make everything possible for a new client. However, very few would be consistent with the promise that they made. The most important thing in this life is relationships. I work for family yet I do not want my relationship with them affected by my problems. I try to be a

The Future of Nursing in an Evolving Health Care System Essay - 1

The Future of Nursing in an Evolving Health Care System - Essay Example Nurses are effective in pushing for these agendas because they are in a position to focus on the background of a patient. Nurses can offer recommendations that are evidence based to their patients. These recommendations motivate individuals to adjust their lifestyle and behavior changes to avoid getting sick. Nurses are also trained in behavioral and clinical sciences which means that they are capable of providing support self-care and self-management training (Olshansky, 2009). For the healthcare reform to shift focus to prevention and wellness, nurses need to teach the public on simple and low-cost strategies that can assist them in preventing diseases. Some of these strategies include engaging in physical activity, practicing deep breathing and laughing and also practicing meditation. These techniques are simple and lead towards behavioral change. The health reform centers on creating a patient-centered structure. This structure will foster personal health and self-care in patients. The reform will also engage the support of health workers such as nurses to ensure that the entire community to be served inputs by following the strategies laid out to them by the health workers (Mitchell,

Personal Development Planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Personal Development Planning - Assignment Example †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦13 Appendices†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦...14 Plagiarism and Unfair Practice It is dishonest not to acknowledge the work of other people and you open yourself up to the accusation of plagiarism. All content of this assignment must be your own independent work. No text, code, diagram, or other content (not even a sentence or phrase) should be taken from another source unless this source is referenced. Referenced phrases should be placed in quotes. Each item should be referenced separately. For more information in respect of plagiarism please refer to the University Assessment Regulations at the following web address: http://quality.newport.ac.uk Plagiarism Statement I have read and understood the statement above concerning plagiarism. I confirm that the work attached is my own and that I will follow the College and University Regulations in respect of plagiarism or any other examination offence. ... Louise Hung Total Word Count: 2817 Introduction Every individual in this world has some goals and objectives established for his future which are based on his interests. The educational career is selected on primarily on the basis of these interests and also on the established goals and objectives. These goals and objectives once established serve as the guiding principles in the individual’s life who will devise a set of rules and ideas for achieving these goals. The next step is to lay out a plan for proper execution of these ideas for achieving those goals. I believe in working in the same pattern while deciding about my future goals and objectives and achieving them. Acquiring education is one part of the plan, the other one is developing the right kind of personality which is best suited for achieving those established goals and objectives. Having selected Electrical Engineering as a career based on my interest, my targets which I have set for myself serve as the biggest motivational power for me. I plan to excel in both technical and managerial skills as I plan to establish a business based on electrical engineering knowledge in future. The technical aspect of my plan is being covered by the courses I am taking in university while the managerial aspects are being polished by the way I am spend the extra time I have. I know if I have to achieve my goals I have to develop strong leadership, networking and communication skill in addition to technical skills. My activities in the co-curricular clubs which I have joined help me to master communication, networking and leadership skills by becoming part of certain teams and leading a few of them, this has also taught me how to work in a

Corporate responsibility Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Corporate responsibility - Essay Example In any case, CSR is a new term which was established in the corporate world only at the beginning of the twenty first century. Apart from making products useful to the society and keeping good relationships with the employees and the community, it is the responsibility of the big companies to give something in return to the community since they are exploiting the community resources very much. CSR has gained prominence in the current business circle since big companies realized that they cannot survive in a community for a longer period if they fail to do something for the community. This paper briefly explains the importance of CSR in the current market environment with the help of examples of companies which show excellent CSR and companies which show poor CSR. Generally speaking, all the companies should focus on the quality of their management and the quantity of their impact on society in various areas (Baker, n.d). Numerous parameters can affect a company while it is operating in a community (See the figure given below). All the parameters mentioned in the figure are influencing company operations in one way or other. Since the company is operating in a community environment, it cannot stay away from the community issues Hawkins (2006) has mentioned that the companies cannot stay away from their CSR since the society provides both customers and resources to fulfill the business objectives of them (Hawkins, 2006, p.2). Anything happening in the society can affect the organization positively or negatively and hence they cannot neglect the needs of the community. For example, the recent recession has destroyed the financial backbone of many people. It is the duty of the corporate world to come out for the rescue of the people since a financially poor community may not be good for the future growth prospects of the companies. Baker (n. d) has mentioned that different countries have different models

Fatigue design consideration in columns under wave cyclic loading Research Paper

Fatigue design consideration in columns under wave cyclic loading - Research Paper Example Studies reveal that there are significant calculations and estimations that need to be considered to determine the effects of wave conditions on these structures. The present study focuses on these factors, and the types of fatigues that are possible. This would bring into light the necessity for experts to consider an extensive study on the structures, the materials employed and the conditions of the waves such that effective measures may be applied in the process of construction. Introduction: Considering the issue of cyclic wave loading, it is necessary to understand that both cyclic strains and residual strains or strains that are permanent in nature are developed when a sequence of cyclic loads affect the underground soil. The permanent or residual strains stay behind at the end of each cyclic load reflecting a growing effect that gets accumulated with the effects left by earlier storms. Greater attention has been provided to evaluations of peak cyclic displacements that occur a long with a storm. However there are greater needs for studies on issues of permanent displacement. While considering these issues, it is also necessary to take into consideration the relationships among the properties of the soil, cyclic loading as well as well as the residual strains and the shear stress (Marr et al, 1981, pp.1129-1130). Concrete components used in offshore structures encounter forces of strong wave owing to frequent storms and are open to tremendously rigorous conditions of the environment leading to decay of steel that is fixed in the structure and worsening of the concrete material. Fatigue loading tests are conducted in this regard in order to obtain fatigue properties of column joints that are already stressed, the results of which can then be compared to those obtained from static loadings. Considering joints and columns in the offshore structures, it has been found that many types of offshore structures constituting concrete that is already stressed have be en built up with intentions to make use of the space of the offshore and to take advantage of the natural resources in offshore regions (Kiyomia et al, 1988, p.139). The present study focuses on the concept of fatigue design implemented in columns under cyclic wave loading. Literature Review: Kiyomia et al (1988, pp.139-140) in their studies had discussed about the determination of the conditions of waves for fatigue designs. According to them the waves of sea are an assortment of numerous sinusoidal waves reflecting different periods of time and amplitudes. Moreover, the conditions of the wave vary based on the site of the construction. The conditions of the waves at every location need to be estimated and assessed by statistical procedures by means of wave records. â€Å"The relationships between the numbers of waves and the wave heights are needed to determine the fatigue limit state according to the service life of the facility when using Miner's rule for calculating the fatigu e strength of the joints. To estimate the serviceability of the joints, the wave conditions, expressed as the number of waves and wave heights over a period of 1 month to 1 year, are needed†. A study considered by International Maritime Organization discussed that the likelihood of damages to fatigue designs owing to cyclic wave loading need to be taken concern of in the â€Å"design of self-elevating and column-stabilized units† (International Maritime Organization, 1990, p.72). Such analyses of the fatigue designs are required to be conducted with the studies based on the intended mode and the operations involved in the designs of the units. Also, the analysis needs to consider the life of the intended design and the convenience of individual structural

Black Panther and Ku Klux Klan Essay Example for Free

Black Panther and Ku Klux Klan Essay After doing research to compare/contrast the two groups, the Black Panthers and the Ku Klux Klan, it opened my eyes. I realized that the new generation is oblivious to the existence of both groups and the similarities and differences in them. I researched the two different groups to see when the groups came into existence who were the members, why they fought for rights they thought they deserved and the groups involvement in violent acts and their remnants today. In World War II, blacks fought for the American dream willingly, but separately from the white soldiers. When the war was over, human rights activists of all races and educated blacks thought the soldiers and blacks deserved the right of equality. Malcolm X was one of the many human rights activists. He was an African-American Muslim minister he thought after years of non-violence, signing petitions, marching, praying and crying and blacks doing the impossible to be recognized as human beings, it was time for them to take it into their own hands. Malcolm X was then assassinated February 21, 1965. Today many of his quotes like this one are famous. And when I speak, I dont speak as a Democrat. Or a Republican. Nor an American. I speak as a victim of Americas so-called democracy. You and I have never seen democracy all weve seen is hypocrisy. When we open our eyes today and look around America, we see America not through the eyes of someone who has enjoyed the fruits of Americanism. We see America through the eyes of someone who has been the victim of Americanism. We dont see any American dream. Weve experienced only the American nightmare. The Black Panther Party was then founded by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale,  in 1966, it was based on ideas which were strongly associated with Malcolm Xs life works it was made up of progressive militant political organization. They advocated Black Nationalism and had strong believes in the necessity of violence and armed self-defense. They patrol African American neighborhoods to protect residents from acts of police brutality and to obtain freedom from white oppression. Fought for the rights of American blacks in the US, they called themselves Revolutionaries. Ku Klux Klan on the other hand was founded in 1866 in Pulaski, Tennessee. The Klan members were many former Confederate veterans determined to fight for the right to restore white supremacy they called themselves The Invisible Empire of the South. Ku Klux Klan believed that black werent fighting for right but for special right and that Negros were happier when they had nothing not even their own name. They also showed resistance to policies that gave the right to economic equality for blacks and other minorities. The Black Panthers were non-violent they petitioned for the right for Black Americans to bear arms. Reason being the police werent there for their safety or to promote their welfare they were there to contain, brutalize and murder them. With the blacks starting to carry guns came violence. There were shootouts with police which killed many innocent people, riots that destroyed towns, blacks had means to defend themselves but then crime skyrocketed. The Black Panther werent organized as some thought and werent ready to fight a revolution they just wanted to be treated like an equal and were ready for anything that crossed there path. Ku Klux Klan had and still have a very violent disposition, they could terrorized the black and any other minorities that they thought threatened their white purity as they referred. Being that the sheriff upheld the rights of the Klan and courts upheld the rights of the sheriff. The Klan killed civil right helpers blacks and whites. Civil rights helpers assisted blacks learn to read so that they could vote as well as getting them to the poles to vote. KKK burned many churches, schools and were involved in lynching of hundreds. Now after two decades of failure 1982 was the official end of the Black Panther Party they did accomplish one thing a major change in police brutality in Oakland went way down. Black Panther also went back to square one the non-violence approach, by setting up organization to help needy family such as free clinic and free meal programs. Educated blacks and activist in this generation are very disappointed in blacks not getting involved and how they accept the minimum for themselves. KKK on the other hand are still very prominent and doubled in size. They even still to this day try to recruit new members by putting flyers with candy on doors in residential areas, doing pod cast, and even do interviews to try to convince the public what they are doing is right and isnt racist as all. They are even trying to adopt highways in some states which judges arent allowing, even after they try to convince them its to keep nature clean.

Alternative Courses Of Action Information Technology Essay

Alternative Courses Of Action Information Technology Essay Real Time Video Limited media is a social enterprise that as being in existence since 1984 with the aim of helping the socially excluded groups, socially deprived areas and risk group to voice their concerns and challenges they are faced with using participatory media. Real Time Video Limited is one of the few firms who received annual grant from council also, fund are being raised through renting out of equipment and funds received for specific projects from different agencies or body. This creates a level of steady inflow of fund to Real Time Video Limited. However, the council grant remains the major source of income for Real Time Video Limited. Real time works mostly with the councils and few project from other firm this due to the stiff completion with other profit making firm. With the rapid increase in social enterprise or the third sector in UK we have seen many faced with challenges which as hampered their growth or force them to close down this rare. Some of the problem encounter includes improper management, inadequate funds, lack of strategic planning etc. In recent years, with the globalization..Companies of today must respond to change to survive the future. Change is inevitable-growth is optional. Change forces all business owners to adapt, adjust and be energetic in building their businesses. After all, there are only three things a company can do with change: ignore it, adapt to it or embrace it. By focusing on new ways of doing things, a company can revitalize their business.   In particular, marketing in new ways and with different strategies not only simulates new business, but also gives a company a new vision on productivity The major problem faced by Real Time Video Limited is the failure to realise the importance of marketing and projecting what they do to wider audience. Through the use of every possible means rather they depend on referral and word of mouth, although referral are good and cost effective medium but, with the changes in technology and the world becoming smaller everyday other means should be explore to reach targeted audience. Secondly, another problem is the inability to upgrade to the recent technology level due to the high prices of these equipments. This has left Real Time Video Limited to be about two to three year technology backward and this has a significant effect on the mode of operation but, Real Time Video Limited still produce top videos with the equipment at its disposal. Others include Inadequate staff that possess the required skills in video and digital art, also they are faced with stiff competition with other profit making business, Sometimes the charges do not cover their entire cost due to long processes and participatory nature of their work, and sometimes having difficulty working with young people and meeting deadline Analysis Boschee. (2006), pointed out that every social enterprise his faced with two fundamental challenges: To do the right things (strategic marketing) and to do them right (operations). In fact, strategic marketing may be the only thing that holds a non-profit together in an increasingly competitive world. Marketing most times is perceived to be irrelevant and too costly, either financially or in terms of time (Foley and Green 1986). In addition, marketing is perceived to be a cost rather than an investment. Real Time Video Limited is not out left in making these assumptions. This has partly resulted in the shrinking of income as some of its major client/sponsor has pulled out and projects have reduced. The major challenges noted was the absent of marketing plans or budget, in these time and age the importance of marketing cannot be over emphasis to the success of any enterprise. Rather Real Time Video Limited depends on the word of mouth and referral from previous client. According to re cent survey of 900 sales marketing professional it was said that small business should focus more on those who they know and have supported them. This experts ranks referrals as the most effective method for attracting new customers. But with the recent introduction of social media marketing where the word of mouth is now operated through different social media this can be an addition to help create awareness about the service of real time. In addition, real time has a web site but is it not fully utilized and it contents gives only little information about who they are, how they do it. This website has little videos that shows their past project, with numerous opportunity available through YouTube to share video to a wide audience at no cost, real time has no video on YouTube and that bothers me. Also real time does not adequately presenting itself to the public, these as resulted in losing potential sponsors and customer, reduction in the streams of funds and ultimately reduction in the number of projects. Sometime it affects the execution of a project i.e. not being able to cover the cost of some project or leads to the suspension of others. On visiting one of Real Time Video Limited shows event, which was basically showing different films to the public in and hoping to get volunteers or skilled people who are interested in video editing, production and other aspect of Real Time Video Limited. That was a great idea but to my surprise, it was not well manage or presented. on interviewing one of the first timer at the venue he seems confused and mistake the venue for a relaxing centre, on asking him about Real Time Video Limited i found out he had little or no knowledge of what Real Time Video Limited is all about. This problem can be said to be as a result of limited finance , and probably inadequate knowledge of marketing. Furthermore, inadequate volunteer there has being some volunteer in the past who being trained but most times they go to the university they dont come back or their family relocates. This has left real time with only one volunteer who has the required skill and one of the founders who acts so many functions. Also the inability to upgrade to the current technology. Limited finance, rapid change in technology, changes in the environment are some of the factor that contribute to the challenges of real time. Alternative courses of action From the list of problem sighted in Real Time Video Limited the following solution are proposed. For the marketing problem which seems to be the main problem i will suggest the firm should carry out an awareness program reasons being that the firm has being around for long. This can be done through the printing of flyers, posters, and other hand held pamphlet, they can be easily created on most computers, which are low cost when printed by self or print one and take it to a copy shop to duplicate. These can be distributed at location where targeted audience will easily find them such as school, restaurants, other social enterprises, charity organizations, local council office and can be included in local newspapers note permission may be required in these case. These flyers should contain basic information, firstly who Real Time Video Limited, what they do, how they help build and influence the society, details of past projects, current projects and views of past participants. Secondly, Articles are another simple and inexpensive way to get the word out about a business which can be use in Real Time Video Limited video. Article can be written on a weekly or monthly basis and place in various social enterprise magazines or local newspapers and other publications. For example having a write-up on how participatory video can be of benefit to the physically challenged or less privilege and other write-ups that gives insights and relevance of participatory in recent times or brief history of participatory video how they are being used in other country. In addition, these articles can be submitted to the top article directories like ezinearticles.com, isnare.com or ladypens.com and creating a link to your website in the resource box. In as much as writing an article might sound interesting but it requires a great skill and creativity. Writing about concept that is not well known might take time before it is accepted. In addition, Participating in forums is another great way to spread the word about a business. This can be done by creating or locating a few social enterprise or conventional forums, blog, etc which is related to what you do and spend a little time each week answering questions. Direct advertisement of your services should be avoided, but posting a link back to your website might do the trick or use your website as your signature. The main aim of creating or locating a forum is to create a relationship with other forum participants and getting them to see you as someone who is an expert in that area which when done they will want to find more about you and possibly becomes a potential customer, volunteer or sponsor. Some of the implications of these is that it is time consuming which may affect the time giving to the overall projects because building a relationship requires time say six month depending on the time put in and involves some level of creativity. It might be difficult t o be implemented as the founders age bracket does not seem to appeal to this. Furthermore, Building relationship with other social enterprise or charity organization that works with the same target audience or the same line of business thereby would learn from there experience where relevant. There are many other charity or social enterprise in reading such as, Berkshire County Blind Society, Disabilities Trust, Prospect For People With Learning Disabilities, and lots of others that fit into your target audience. In the case of other social enterprise in same industry, we have Media Community Network Ltd, Malt Films Ltd, Griffin Theatre Company, just to mention a few all of which are located in London, however their some conventional media partners. Smart partnering help expose a business to new groups of customers, or hard to reach audience. using a partners contacts and reputation can be a valuable way to get a foothold with new groups of customers or sponsor. Also the relationship sees the two business have a greater buying power than individual. It can res ult into having volunteer with the required skill Also, Employing the services of a consultant or having a specialist in marketing will be helpful has it brings along with it wealth of experience. Marketing cannot be over emphasis as it is vital to the success of any business as it help to create awareness or inform on the existence of a particular service. Employing the services of a consultant to help in planning the marketing strategy of Real Time Video Limited would be a welcome idea as it brings along with a lots of benefit such as it save time as that aspect is being handled by a professional, also wealth of experience from acquired over year can be relevant and other advantages attached. However, with the benefit that come s with employing a consultant also cons the cost, the average cost of having a service of consultant is about  £1070, which is much for Real Time Video Limited who has one only major sponsor. Example of a consultant that works with social enterprise is Eastside Consulting Ltd. The other opinion is to empl oy marketing personnel whose duties would be to plan and implement marketing strategies and working according along side with clive and other partners. This option is less expensive and members are involved in the planning, it allows for progressive update to the members. Moreover, Video advertising is one of the fastest growing means of passing across messages to wide audience, with the advent of social website such as face book, YouTube, etc which allow sending and sharing of videos at no cost, and makes it easier to cover a wide rank of people. In recent time, statistics has showed that people do not have patience to read anymore and would rather watch a video that explains a concept. Over the years there has being an increase in the use of video to promote products and services amongst small businesses and this feature is added to their website. From the chart below in the fourth quarter of 2008 5.2% of small business had video on their web site, in the fourth quarter of 2009 the number increased to 19.2% almost four times as many. From: http://www.reelseo.com/video-small-business-advertisers/ Thats the growth recorded within a year, and the growth is expected to increase over the years, as it is inexpensive and it is one of the ways to best engage and position your firm amongst the targeted audience that are seeking for your services via search. This area is the specialty of Real Time Video Limited because they make videos to promote other area of concern, i believe they should be able to make a video that shows what they do, how they do it and how it is affecting their society. Lastly, there is no denying that social media websites are the next destination for marketing on the web. The number of people who participate in social network website has increased and this as led to the increase in the investment in social media marketing. Some small businesses has incorporate social media marketing as strategies in achieving their goals. Some of such social network site include, twitter, Facebook, MySpace and YouTube. Social media marketing is word-of-mouth in an online environment and it has greater effect than conventional word of mouth as information moves faster with just a click. If you want to attract new visitors to your site then you have to actually participate and become involved in a community. The of the is to real is that it is easy to set up at no cost, Social media helps engages audience, increase your online visibility, it helps to create brand awareness, generate publicity (both good bad). All these suggested solution are geared towards building relationship with real time video-targeted audience. (Relationship marketing) Dees et al (2001). Recommendations All the suggested recommended was based on the assumption that Real Time Video Limited has limited financial resources, has not maximize it potential and the latest trend of marketing effectiveness, requirement/nature of the target audience. Firstly, I will recommend having a new employee against consulting a specialist in marketing reason being that a firm like Real Time Video Limited video have limited funds, also approaching a consultant is expensive and there is little control over their activities. However, since marketing is a cyclical and continuous process having someone responsible will allow for flexibility, daily monitoring of progress and low cost of running compare to consulting. It should be noted that the person employed might not have the wealth of experience compared to a consultant. Nevertheless, with training and different exposure there will be an improvement. The process for getting marketing personal is putting up job advertising and volunteer on the web site. Furthermore, Also building a web site that is comprehensive that show what you do and how u do they, e.g. putting up videos, pictures, relevant links to support each project. E.g. the project on the land lord rent policy should be linked to various property agents, also the project on road to recovery and whats up doc can be linked to other social enterprise that works with recovering addict and those with learning disabilities. The social media networks should be linked with the website to allow for easier access by visitors. Most social enterprise are using this means as it i.e. cheap and easy to set up and it helps to build relationships. Relationship marketing is one the quiet means but the most effective as customer seek to establish relationship with its service provider. In implement this, according to Clive Real Time Video Limited video is building a new website all these suggested features can be added to the new website, as they are easy to set-up. In building the relations hip over the social media, it takes 6 month or more depending on the creativity and time input. Lastly, the printing of flyers and handbills showing and describing what real time video is all about, what they do, how they do it, and how it has affected the society. Also establishing symbiotic relationships with other social enterprise in the same target audience and other conventional business. This can proof difficult at first but over time and established trust between the parties they can learn from each other. Creating a strong network of business partnerships can be a valuable way to provide good customer service.   When you cant meet a customers needs, a reference to a reliable business can be a relationship saver.   In turn, both the customer and the other business are happy, and may return the favour. Real Time Video Limited can ride on reading borough, council forums and publications as a means to create awareness of its services however, application must be made to this course.